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OUTLINE OF AMERICAN LITERA

AMERIC

Outline of

LITERATURE

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF STATE /

❦

BUREAU OF INTERNATIONAL INFORMATION PROGRAMS

http://usinfo.state.gov

REVISED EDITION

REVISED

EDITION

TURE

AMERICAN

LITERATURE

REVISED EDITION

EARLY AMERICAN

PUBLISHED BY THE UNITED STATES

DEPARTMENT OF STATE

AND COLONIAL PERIOD TO 1776 3

STAFF

DEMOCRATIC ORIGINS

WRITTEN BY: KATHRYN VANSPANCKEREN

AND REVOLUTIONARY WRITERS,

EXECUTIVE EDITOR: GEORGE CLACK

1776-1820

MANAGING EDITOR: PAUL MALAMUD

CONTRIBUTING EDITOR: KATHLEEN HUG

ART DIRECTOR / DESIGNER:

HE ROMANTIC PERIOD, 1820-1860:

HADDEUS A. MIKSINSKI, JR.

PICTURE EDITOR: JOANN STERN

ESSAYISTS AND POETS 26

THE ROMANTIC PERIOD,

1820-1860: FICTION

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

36 Kathryn VanSpanckeren

is Professor of English at the

THE RISE OF REALISM:

University of Tampa, has

1860-1914

lectured in American literature

47 widely abroad, and is former

director of the Fulbright-spon-

MODERNISM AND

sored Summer Institute in

American Literature for

XPERIMENTATION: 1914-1945 60

international scholars. Her

publications include poetry and

scholarship. She received

MERICAN POETRY,

her Bachelors degree from the

1945–1990: THE ANTI-TRADITION

University of California,

Berkeley, and her Ph.D. from

Harvard University.

AMERICAN PROSE,

1945–1990:

REALISM AND EXPERIMENTATION 97

CONTEMPORARY AMERICAN POETRY 121

CONTEMPORARY AMERICAN LITERATURE 136

GLOSSARY 157

INDEX 163

The following text materials may not be reproduced without permission of the copyright holder.

“In a Station of the Metro” (page 63) by Ezra Pound. From Ezra Pound Personae.

“Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening” (page 65) by Robert Frost. From The Poetry of Robert Frost, edited by Edward Connery Lathem. Copyright 1923. © 1969 by Henry Holt and Co., Inc., © 1951 by Robert Frost. Reprinted and translated by permission of Henry Holt and Co., Inc.

“Disillusionment of Ten O’Clock” (page 66) by Wallace Stevens. From Selected Poems by Wallace Stevens. Copyright 1923 and renewed 1951 by Wallace Stevens. Reprinted by permission of Alfred A. Knopf, Inc.

“The Red Wheelbarrow” (page 66) and “The Young Housewife” (page 67) by William Carlos Williams. Collected Poems. 1909-1939. Vol. I. Copyright 1938 by New Directions Publishing Corp. Reprinted by permission of New Directions.

“The Negro Speaks of Rivers” (page 69) by Langston Hughes. From Selected Poems by Langston Hughes. Copyright 1926 by Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. and renewed 1954 by Langston Hughes. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.

“The Death of the Ball Turret Gunner” (page 80) by Randall Jarrell from Randall Jarrell: Selected Poems; © 1945 by Randall Jarrell, © 1990 by Mary Von Schrader Jarrell, published by Farrar Straus & Giroux. Permission granted by Rhoda Weyr Agency, New York.

by Jane Hirshfield. Reprinted by permission of HarperCollins Publishers Inc.

A number of the illustrations appearing in this volume are also copyrighted, as is indicated on the illustrations themselves. These may not be reprinted without the permission of the copyright holder.

The opinions expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the U.S. government.

some tales of a high god or culture were told

elsewhere. However, there are no long, stan-

CHAPTER dardized religious cycles about one supreme divinity. The closest equivalents to Old World

spiritual narratives are often accounts of

shamans’ initiations and voyages. Apart from

these, there are stories about culture heroes

such as the Ojibwa tribe’s Manabozho or the

EARLY AMERICAN AND

Navajo tribe’s Coyote. These tricksters are treat-

COLONIAL PERIOD TO 1776 ed with varying degrees of respect. In one tale they may act like heroes, while in another they

merican literature begins with the orally

may seem selfish or foolish. Although past

transmitted myths, legends, tales, and

authorities, such as the Swiss psychologist Carl

Alyrics (always songs) of Indian cultures. Jung, have deprecated trickster tales as express-There was no written literature among the more

ing the inferior, amoral side of the psyche, con-

than 500 different Indian languages and tribal

temporary scholars — some of them Native

cultures that existed in North America before

Americans — point out that Odysseus and

the first Europeans arrived. As a result, Na-

Prometheus, the revered Greek heroes, are

tive American oral literature is quite diverse.

essentially tricksters as well.

Narratives from quasi-nomadic hunting cultures

Examples of almost every oral genre can be

like the Navaho are different from stories of set-

found in American Indian literature: lyrics,

tled agricultural tribes such as the pueblo-

chants, myths, fairy tales, humorous anecdotes,

dwelling Acoma; the stories of northern lakeside

incantations, riddles, proverbs, epics, and leg-

dwellers such as the Ojibwa often differ radical-

endary histories. Accounts of migrations and an-

ly from stories of desert tribes like the Hopi.

cestors abound, as do vision or healing songs and

Tribes maintained their own religions — wor-

tricksters’ tales. Certain creation stories are

shipping gods, animals, plants, or sacred per-

particularly popular. In one well-known creation

sons. Systems of government ranged from

story, told with variations among many tribes, a

democracies to councils of elders to theocra-

turtle holds up the world. In a Cheyenne version,

cies. These tribal variations enter into the oral

the creator, Maheo, has four chances to fashion

literature as well.

the world from a watery universe. He sends four

Still, it is possible to make a few generaliza-

water birds diving to try to bring up earth from

tions. Indian stories, for example, glow with rev-

the bottom. The snow goose, loon, and mallard

erence for nature as a spiritual as well as physi-

soar high into the sky and sweep down in a dive,

cal mother. Nature is alive and endowed with

but cannot reach bottom; but the little coot, who

spiritual forces; main characters may be animals

cannot fly, succeeds in bringing up some mud in

or plants, often totems associated with a tribe,

his bill. Only one creature, humble Grandmother

group, or individual. The closest to the Indian

Turtle, is the right shape to support the mud

sense of holiness in later American literature is

world Maheo shapes on her shell — hence the

Ralph Waldo Emerson’s transcendental “Over-

Indian name for America, “Turtle Island.”

Soul,” which pervades all of life.

The songs or poetry, like the narratives, range

The Mexican tribes revered the divine

from the sacred to the light and humorous:

Quetzalcoatl, a god of the Toltecs and Aztecs, and There are lullabies, war chants, love songs, and

special songs for children’s games, gambling,

English, Spanish, or French. The first European

various chores, magic, or dance ceremonials.

record of exploration in America is in a

Generally the songs are repetitive. Short poem-

Scandinavian language. The Old Norse Vinland

songs given in dreams sometimes have the clear

Saga recounts how the adventurous Leif Ericson imagery and subtle mood associated with

and a band of wandering Norsemen settled

Japanese haiku or Eastern-influenced imagistic

briefly somewhere on the northeast coast of

poetry. A Chippewa song runs:

America — probably Nova Scotia, in Canada —

in the first decade of the 11th century, almost 400

A loon I thought it was

years before the next recorded European dis-

But it was

covery of the New World.

My love’s

The first known and sustained contact be-

splashing oar.

tween the Americas and the rest of the world,

however, began with the famous voyage of an

Vision songs, often very short, are another dis-

Italian explorer, Christopher Columbus, funded

tinctive form. Appearing in dreams or visions,

by the Spanish rulers Ferdinand and Isabella.

sometimes with no warning, they may be healing,

Columbus’s journal in his “Epistola,” printed in

hunting, or love songs. Often they are personal,

1493, recounts the trip’s drama — the terror of

as in this Modoc song:

the men, who feared monsters and thought they

might fall off the edge of the world; the near-

mutiny; how Columbus faked the ships’ logs so

the song

the men would not know how much farther they

I walk here.

had travelled than anyone had gone before; and

the first sighting of land as they neared America.

Indian oral tradition and its relation to American Bartolomé de las Casas is the richest source

literature as a whole is one of the richest and least of information about the early contact between

explored topics in American studies. The Indian

American Indians and Europeans. As a young

contribution to America is greater than is often

priest he helped conquer Cuba. He transcribed

believed. The hundreds of Indian words in every-

Columbus’s journal, and late in life wrote a long, day American English include “canoe,” “tobacco,”

vivid History of the Indians criticizing their

“potato,” “moccasin,” “moose,” “persimmon,”

enslavement by the Spanish.

“raccoon,” “tomahawk,” and “totem.” Con-

Initial English attempts at colonization were

temporary Native American writing, discussed in

disasters. The first colony was set up in 1585 at

chapter 8, also contains works of great beauty.

Roanoke, off the coast of North Carolina; all its

colonists disappeared, and to this day legends

THE LITERATURE OF EXPLORATION

are told about blue-eyed Croatan Indians of the

ad history taken a different turn, the

area. The second colony was more permanent:

United States easily could have been a

Jamestown, established in 1607. It endured star-

Hpart of the great Spanish or French over- vation, brutality, and misrule. However, the liter-seas empires. Its present inhabitants might

ature of the period paints America in glowing

speak Spanish and form one nation with Mexico,

colors as the land of riches and opportunity.

or speak French and be joined with Canadian

Accounts of the colonizations became world-

Francophone Quebec and Montreal.

renowned. The exploration of Roanoke was care-

Yet the earliest explorers of America were not

fully recorded by Thomas Hariot in A Brief and 4

True Report of the New-Found Land of Virginia

is important to recognize its richly cosmopolitan

(1588). Hariot’s book was quickly translated into

beginnings.

Latin, French, and German; the text and pictures

were made into engravings and widely repub-

THE COLONIAL PERIOD IN

lished for over 200 years.

NEW ENGLAND

The Jamestown colony’s main record, the writ-

ings of Captain John Smith, one of its leaders, is It is likely that no other colonists in the history of the world were as intellectual as the

the exact opposite of Hariot’s accurate, scientif-

Puritans. Between 1630 and 1690, there were

ic account. Smith was an incurable romantic, and

as many university graduates in the northeastern

he seems to have embroidered his adventures.

section of the United States, known as New

To him we owe the famous story of the Indian

England, as in the mother country — an astound-

maiden, Pocahontas. Whether fact or fiction, the

ing fact when one considers that most educated

tale is ingrained in the American historical imag-

people of the time were aristocrats who were

ination. The story recounts how Pocahontas,

unwilling to risk their lives in wilderness condi-

favorite daughter of Chief Powhatan, saved

tions. The self-made and often self-educated

Captain Smith’s life when he was a prisoner of

Puritans were notable exceptions. They wanted

the chief. Later, when the English persuaded

education to understand and execute God’s will

Powhatan to give Pocahontas to them as a

as they established their colonies throughout

hostage, her gentleness, intelligence, and beauty

New England.

impressed the English, and, in 1614, she married

The Puritan definition of good writing was that

John Rolfe, an English gentleman. The marriage

which brought home a full awareness of the im-

initiated an eight-year peace between the col-

portance of worshipping God and of the spiritual

onists and the Indians, ensuring the survival of

dangers that the soul faced on Earth. Puritan

the struggling new colony.

style varied enormously — from complex meta-

In the 17th century, pirates, adventurers, and

physical poetry to homely journals and crushing-

explorers opened the way to a second wave of

ly pedantic religious history. Whatever the style

permanent colonists, bringing their wives, chil-

or genre, certain themes remained constant. Life

dren, farm implements, and craftsmen’s tools.

was seen as a test; failure led to eternal damna-

The early literature of exploration, made up of

tion and hellfire, and success to heavenly bliss.

diaries, letters, travel journals, ships’ logs, and This world was an arena of constant battle

reports to the explorers’ financial backers —

between the forces of God and the forces of

European rulers or, in mercantile England and

Satan, a formidable enemy with many disguises.

Holland, joint stock companies — gradually was

Many Puritans excitedly awaited the “millenni-

supplanted by records of the settled colonies.

um,” when Jesus would return to Earth, end

Because England eventually took possession of

human misery, and inaugurate 1,000 years of

the North American colonies, the best-known

peace and prosperity.

and most-anthologized colonial literature is

Scholars have long pointed out the link

English. As American minority literature contin-

between Puritanism and capitalism: Both rest on

ues to flower in the 20th century and American

ambition, hard work, and an intense striving for

life becomes increasingly multicultural, scholars

success. Although individual Puritans could not

are rediscovering the importance of the conti-

know, in strict theological terms, whether they

nent’s mixed ethnic heritage. Although the story

were “saved” and among the elect who would go

of literature now turns to the English accounts, it to heaven, Puritans tended to feel that earthly

Painting courtesy Smithsonian Institution

“The First Thanksgiving,” a painting by J.L.G. Ferris, depicts America’s early settlers and Native Americans celebrating a bountiful harvest.

success was a sign of election. Wealth and status

Like most Puritans, they interpreted the Bible

were sought not only for themselves, but as literally. They read and acted on the text of the welcome reassurances of spiritual health and

Second Book of Corinthians — “Come out from

promises of eternal life.

among them and be ye separate, saith the Lord.”

Moreover, the concept of stewardship encour-

Despairing of purifying the Church of England

aged success. The Puritans interpreted all things

from within, “Separatists” formed underground

and events as symbols with deeper spiritual

“covenanted” churches that swore loyalty to the

meanings, and felt that in advancing their own

group instead of the king. Seen as traitors to the profit and their community’s well-being, they

king as well as heretics damned to hell, they

were also furthering God’s plans. They did not

were often persecuted. Their separation took

draw lines of distinction between the secular and

them ultimately to the New World.

religious spheres: All of life was an expression of the divine will — a belief that later resurfaces in William Bradford (1590-1657)

Transcendentalism.

William Bradford was elected governor of

In recording ordinary events to reveal their

Plymouth in the Massachusetts Bay Colony short-

spiritual meaning, Puritan authors commonly

ly after the Separatists landed. He was a deeply

cited the Bible, chapter and verse. History was a

pious, self-educated man who had learned sever-

symbolic religious panorama leading to the

al languages, including Hebrew, in order to “see

Puritan triumph over the New World and to God’s

with his own eyes the ancient oracles of God in

kingdom on Earth.

their native beauty.” His participation in the

The first Puritan colonists who settled New

migration to Holland and the Mayflower voyage England exemplified the seriousness of Refor-to Plymouth, and his duties as governor, made

mation Christianity. Known as the “Pilgrims,”

him ideally suited to be the first historian of his they were a small group of believers who had

colony. His history, Of Plymouth Plantation

migrated from England to Holland — even then

(1651), is a clear and compelling account of the

known for its religious tolerance — in 1608, dur-

colony’s beginning. His description of the first

ing a time of persecutions.

view of America is justly famous:

Being thus passed the vast ocean, and a sea

husband eventually became governor of the

of troubles...they had now no friends to wel-

Massachusetts Bay Colony, which later grew into

come them nor inns to entertain or refresh

the great city of Boston. She preferred her long,

their weatherbeaten bodies; no houses or

religious poems on conventional subjects such

much less towns to repair to, to seek for

as the seasons, but contemporary readers most

succor...savage barbarians...were readier to

enjoy the witty poems on subjects from daily life

fill their sides with arrows than otherwise.

and her warm and loving poems to her husband

And for the reason it was winter, and they

and children. She was inspired by English meta-

that know the winters of that country, know

physical poetry, and her book The Tenth Muse

them to be sharp and violent, and subject to

Lately Sprung Up in America (1650) shows the cruel and fierce storms...all stand upon

influence of Edmund Spenser, Philip Sidney, and

them with a weatherbeaten face, and the

other English poets as well. She often uses elab-

whole country, full of woods and thickets,

orate conceits or extended metaphors. “To My

represented a wild and savage hue.

Dear and Loving Husband” (1678) uses the ori-

ental imagery, love theme, and idea of compari-

radford also recorded the first document

son popular in Europe at the time, but gives

of colonial self-governance in the

these a pious meaning at the poem’s conclusion:

BEnglish New World, the “Mayflower

Compact,” drawn up while the Pilgrims were still

If ever two were one, then surely we.

on board ship. The compact was a harbinger of

If ever man were loved by wife, then thee;

the Declaration of Independence to come a

If ever wife was happy in a man,

century and a half later.

Compare with me, ye women, if you can.

Puritans disapproved of such secular amuse-

I prize thy love more than whole mines of gold

ments as dancing and card-playing, which were

Or all the riches that the East doth hold.

associated with ungodly aristocrats and immoral

My love is such that rivers cannot quench,

living. Reading or writing “light” books also fell Nor ought but love from thee, give recompense.

into this category. Puritan minds poured their

Thy love is such I can no way repay,

tremendous energies into nonfiction and pious

The heavens reward thee manifold, I pray.

genres: poetry, sermons, theological tracts, and

Then while we live, in love let’s so persevere

histories. Their intimate diaries and meditations

That when we live no more, we may live ever.

record the rich inner lives of this introspective

and intense people.

Edward Taylor (c. 1644-1729)

Like Anne Bradstreet, and, in fact, all of New

Anne Bradstreet (c. 1612-1672)

England’s first writers, the intense, brilliant poet The first published book of poems by an

and minister Edward Taylor was born in England.

American was also the first American bo