Court, became a Fellow of the Royal Society, and
noble landed gentry made possible by slavery.
was friendly with some of the leading English
The institution released wealthy southern whites
writers of his day, particularly William Wycherley from manual labor, afforded them leisure, and
and William Congreve. His London diaries are the
made the dream of an aristocratic life in the
opposite of those of the New England Puritans,
American wilderness possible. The Puritan
full of fancy dinners, glittering parties, and wom-emphasis on hard work, education, and earnest-
anizing, with little introspective soul-searching.
12
Byrd is best known today for his lively History the author, an Englishman named Ebenezer
of the Dividing Line, a diary of a 1729 trip of some Cook, had unsuccessfully tried his hand as a
weeks and 960 kilometers into the interior to
tobacco merchant. Cook exposed the crude ways
survey the line dividing the neighboring colonies
of the colony with high-spirited humor, and
of Virginia and North Carolina. The quick impres-
accused the colonists of cheating him. The poem
sions that vast wilderness, Indians, half-savage
concludes with an exaggerated curse: “May
whites, wild beasts, and every sort of difficulty
wrath divine then lay those regions waste /
made on this civilized gentleman form a uniquely
Where no man’s faithful nor a woman chaste.”
American and very southern book. He ridicules
In general, the colonial South may fairly be
the first Virginia colonists, “about a hundred
linked with a light, worldly, informative, and real-men, most of them reprobates of good families,”
istic literary tradition. Imitative of English liter-and jokes that at Jamestown, “like true
ary fashions, the southerners attained imagina-
Englishmen, they built a church that cost no
tive heights in witty, precise observations of dis-more than fifty pounds, and a tavern that cost five tinctive New World conditions.
hundred.” Byrd’s writings are fine examples of
the keen interest southerners took in the mate-
Olaudah Equiano (Gustavus Vassa)
rial world: the land, Indians, plants, animals, and (c. 1745-c. 1797)
settlers.
Important black writers like Olaudah Equiano
and Jupiter Hammon emerged during the colo-
Robert Beverley (c. 1673-1722)
nial period. Equiano, an Ibo from Niger (West
obert Beverley, another wealthy planter
Africa), was the first black in America to write an and author of The History and Present
autobiography, The Interesting Narrative of the R State of Virginia(1705, 1722) records Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the the history of the Virginia colony in a humane and African (1789). In the book — an early example vigorous style. Like Byrd, he admired the Indians of the slave narrative genre — Equiano gives an
and remarked on the strange European supersti-
account of his native land and the horrors and
tions about Virginia — for example, the belief
cruelties of his captivity and enslavement in
“that the country turns all people black who go
the West Indies. Equiano, who converted to
there.” He noted the great hospitality of south-
Christianity, movingly laments his cruel “un-
erners, a trait maintained today.
Christian” treatment by Christians — a senti-
Humorous satire — a literary work in which
ment many African-Americans would voice in
human vice or folly is attacked through irony,
centuries to come.
derision, or wit — appears frequently in the
colonial South. A group of irritated settlers lam-
Jupiter Hammon (c. 1720-c. 1800)
pooned Georgia’s philanthropic founder, General
The black American poet Jupiter Hammon, a
James Oglethorpe, in a tract entitled A True and slave on Long Island, New York, is remembered
Historical Narrative of the Colony of Georgia
for his religious poems as well as for An Address (1741). They pretended to praise him for keeping
to the Negroes of the State of New York (1787), in them so poor and overworked that they had to
which he advocated freeing children of slaves
develop “the valuable virtue of humility” and
instead of condemning them to hereditary
shun “the anxieties of any further ambition.”
slavery. His poem “An Evening Thought” was the
The rowdy, satirical poem “The Sotweed
first poem published by a black male in
Factor” satirizes the colony of Maryland, where
America.
■
13
Herman Melville, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Edgar
Allan Poe, Walt Whitman, and Emily Dickinson.
CHAPTER America’s literary independence was slowed by a lingering identification with England, an excessive imitation of English or classical literary models, and difficult economic and political condi-
2 tions that hampered publishing.
DEMOCRATIC ORIGINS
Revolutionary writers, despite their genuine
AND REVOLUTIONARY
patriotism, were of necessity self-conscious, and
WRITERS, 1776-1820
they could never find roots in their American
sensibilities. Colonial writers of the revolution-
he hard-fought American Revolution
ary generation had been born English, had grown
against Britain (1775-1783) was the first
to maturity as English citizens, and had cultivated Tmodern war of liberation against a colonial English modes of thought and English fashions in power. The triumph of American independence
dress and behavior. Their parents and grandpar-
seemed to many at the time a divine sign that
ents were English (or European), as were all
America and her people were destined for great-
their friends. Added to this, American awareness
ness. Military victory fanned nationalistic hopes
of literary fashion still lagged behind the English, for a great new literature. Yet with the excep-and this time lag intensified American imitation.
tion of outstanding political writing, few works Fifty years after their fame in England, English of note appeared during or soon after the
neoclassic writers such as Joseph Addison,
Revolution.
Richard Steele, Jonathan Swift, Alexander Pope,
American books were harshly reviewed in
Oliver Goldsmith, and Samuel Johnson were still
England. Americans were painfully aware of their
eagerly imitated in America.
excessive dependence on English literary mod-
Moreover, the heady challenges of building a
els. The search for a native literature became a
new nation attracted talented and educated peo-
national obsession. As one American magazine
ple to politics, law, and diplomacy. These pursuits editor wrote, around 1816, “Dependence is a
brought honor, glory, and financial security.
state of degradation fraught with disgrace, and to Writing, on the other hand, did not pay. Early
be dependent on a foreign mind for what we can
American writers, now separated from England,
ourselves produce is to add to the crime of indo-
effectively had no modern publishers, no audi-
lence the weakness of stupidity.”
ence, and no adequate legal protection. Edito-
Cultural revolutions, unlike military revolu-
rial assistance, distribution, and publicity were
tions, cannot be successfully imposed but must
rudimentary.
grow from the soil of shared experience.
Until 1825, most American authors paid print-
Revolutions are expressions of the heart of the
ers to publish their work. Obviously only the
people; they grow gradually out of new sensibili-
leisured and independently wealthy, like Wash-
ties and wealth of experience. It would take 50
ington Irving and the New York Knickerbocker
years of accumulated history for America to earn
group, or the group of Connecticut poets knows
its cultural independence and to produce the
as the Hartford Wits, could afford to indulge
first great generation of American writers:
their interest in writing. The exception, Benjamin Washington Irving, James Fenimore Cooper,
Franklin, though from a poor family, was a print-
Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau,
er by trade and could publish his own work.
14
Charles Brockden Brown was
Carey, an important American pub-
more typical. The author of sever-
lisher, paid a London agent — a
al interesting Gothic romances,
sort of literary spy — to send
Brown was the first American
copies of unbound pages, or even
author to attempt to live from his
proofs, to him in fast ships that
writing. But his short life ended in
could sail to America in a month.
poverty.
Carey’s men would sail out to meet
The lack of an audience was
the incoming ships in the harbor
another problem. The small culti-
and speed the pirated books into
vated audience in America wanted
print using typesetters who divided
well-known European authors,
the book into sections and worked
partly out of the exaggerated
in shifts around the clock. Such a
respect with which former colonies
pirated English book could be re-
regarded their previous rulers.
printed in a day and placed on the
This preference for English works
shelves for sale in American book-
was not entirely unreasonable, con-
stores almost as fast as in England.
sidering the inferiority of American
Because imported authorized
output, but it worsened the situa-
editions were more expensive and
tion by depriving American authors
could not compete with pirated
of an audience. Only journalism
ones, the copyright situation dam-
offered financial remuneration, but
aged foreign authors such as Sir
the mass audience wanted light,
Walter Scott and Charles Dickens,
undemanding verse and short topi-
along with American authors. But
cal essays — not long or experi-
at least the foreign authors had
mental work.
already been paid by their original
The absence of adequate copy-
publishers and were already well
right laws was perhaps the clearest
known. Americans such as James
cause of literary stagnation. Am-
Fenimore Cooper not only failed to
erican printers pirating English
receive adequate payment, but they
best-sellers understandably were
had to suffer seeing their works
unwilling to pay an American author
pirated under their noses. Coo-
for unknown material. The unau-
NOAH WEBSTER
per’s first successful book, The Spy
thorized reprinting of foreign
(1821), was pirated by four differ-
books was originally seen as a ser-
ent printers within a month of its
vice to the colonies as well as a
appearance.
source of profit for printers like
Ironically, the copyright law of
Franklin, who reprinted works of
1790, which allowed pirating, was
the classics and great European
nationalistic in intent. Drafted by
books to educate the American
Noah Webster, the great lexicogra-
public.
pher who later compiled an Am-
Printers everywhere in America
erican dictionary, the law protected
followed his lead. There are notori-
only the work of American authors;
Engraving © The Bettmann
ous examples of pirating. Matthew
Archive
it was felt that English writers
15
should look out for themselves.
ual. Self-educated but well-read in John Locke,
Bad as the law was, none of the early publish-
Lord Shaftesbury, Joseph Addison, and other
ers were willing to have it changed because it
Enlightenment writers, Franklin learned from
proved profitable for them. Piracy starved the
them to apply reason to his own life and to break
first generation of revolutionary American writ-
with tradition — in particular the old-fashioned
ers; not surprisingly, the generation after them
Puritan tradition — when it threatened to
produced even less work of merit. The high point
smother his ideals.
of piracy, in 1815, corresponds with the low point While a youth, Franklin taught himself lan-of American writing. Nevertheless, the cheap and
guages, read widely, and practiced writing for the plentiful supply of pirated foreign books and
public. When he moved from Boston to
classics in the first 50 years of the new country
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Franklin already had
did educate Americans, including the first great
the kind of education associated with the upper
writers, who began to make their appearance
classes. He also had the Puritan capacity for
around 1825.
hard, careful work, constant self-scrutiny, and
the desire to better himself. These qualities
THE AMERICAN ENLIGHTENMENT
steadily propelled him to wealth, respectability,
he 18th-century American Enlightenment
and honor. Never selfish, Franklin tried to help
was a movement marked by an emphasis on
other ordinary people become successful by
Trationality rather than tradition, scientif- sharing his insights and initiating a characteristi-ic inquiry instead of unquestioning religious
cally American genre — the self-help book.
dogma, and representative government in place
Franklin’s Poor Richard’s Almanack, begun in of monarchy. Enlightenment thinkers and writers
1732 and published for many years, made
were devoted to the ideals of justice, liberty, and Franklin prosperous and well-known throughout
equality as the natural rights of man.
the colonies. In this annual book of useful
encouragement, advice, and factual information,
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790)
amusing characters such as old Father Abraham
Benjamin Franklin, whom the Scottish philoso-
and Poor Richard exhort the reader in pithy,
pher David Hume called America’s “first great
memorable sayings. In “The Way to Wealth,”
man of letters,” embodied the Enlightenment
which originally appeared in the Almanack, ideal of humane rationality. Practical yet idealis-Father Abraham, “a plain clean old Man, with
tic, hard-working and enormously successful,
white Locks,” quotes Poor Richard at length. “A
Franklin recorded his early life in his famous
Word to the Wise is enough,” he says. “God helps
Autobiography. Writer, printer, publisher, scien-them that help themselves.” “Early to Bed, and
tist, philanthropist, and diplomat, he was the
early to rise, makes a Man healthy, wealthy, and
most famous and respected private figure of his
wise.” Poor Richard is a psychologist (“Industry
time. He was the first great self-made man in
pays Debts, while Despair encreaseth them”),
America, a poor democrat born in an aristocratic
and he always counsels hard work (“Diligence is
age that his fine example helped to liberalize.
the Mother of Good Luck”). Do not be lazy, he
Franklin was a second-generation immigrant.
advises, for “One To-day is worth two tomorrow.”
His Puritan father, a chandler (candle-maker),
Sometimes he creates anecdotes to illustrate his
came to Boston, Massachusetts, from England in
points: “A little Neglect may breed great Mis-
1683. In many ways Franklin’s life illustrates the chief....For want of a Nail the Shoe was lost; for impact of the Enlightenment on a gifted individ-want of a Shoe the Horse was lost; and for want
16
BENJAMIN FRANKLIN
Engraving courtesy Library of Congress
17
of a Horse the Rider was lost, being overtaken
which the U.S. Constitution was drafted. In his
and slain by the Enemy, all for want of Care about later years, he was president of an antislavery
a Horse-shoe Nail.” Franklin was a genius at
association. One of his last efforts was to pro-
compressing a moral point: “What maintains one
mote universal public education.
Vice, would bring up two Children.” “A small leak
will sink a great Ship.” “Fools make Feasts, and
Hector St. John de Crèvecoeur (1735-1813)
wise Men eat them.”
Another Enlightenment figure is Hector St.
Franklin’s Autobiography is, in part, another John de Crèvecoeur, whose Letters from an
self-help book. Written to advise his son, it cov-American Farmer (1782) gave Europeans a glowers only the early years. The most famous sec-
ing idea of opportunities for peace, wealth, and
tion describes his scientific scheme of self-
pride in America. Neither an American nor a
improvement. Franklin lists 13 virtues: temper-
farmer, but a French aristocrat who owned a
ance, silence, order, resolution, frugality, indusplantation outside New York City before the
try, sincerity, justice, moderation, cleanliness,
Revolution, Crèvecoeur enthusiastically praised
tranquility, chastity, and humility. He elaborates the colonies for their industry, tolerance, and
on each with a maxim; for example, the temper-
growing prosperity in 12 letters that depict
ance maxim is “Eat not to Dullness. Drink not to
America as an agrarian paradise — a vision
Elevation.” A pragmatic scientist, Franklin put
that would inspire Thomas Jefferson, Ralph
the idea of perfectibility to the test, using him-
Waldo Emerson, and many other writers up to
self as the experimental subject.
the present.
To establish good habits, Franklin invented a
Crèvecoeur was the earliest European to
reusable calendrical record book in which he
develop a considered view of America and the
worked on one virtue each week, recording each
new American character. The first to exploit the
lapse with a black spot. His theory prefigures
“melting pot” image of America, in a famous pas-
psychological behaviorism, while his systematic
sage he asks:
method of notation anticipates modern behavior
modification. The project of self-improvement
What then is the American, this new man?
blends the Enlightenment belief in perfectibility
He is either a European, or the descendant
with the Puritan habit of moral self-scrutiny.
of a European, hence that strange mixture
ranklin saw early that writing could best
of blood, which you will find in no other
advance his ideas, and he therefore delib-
country. I could point out to you a family
Ferately perfected his supple prose style, whose grandfather was an Englishman, not as an end in itself but as a tool. “Write with whose wife was Dutch, whose son married a
the learned. Pronounce with the vulgar,” he
French woman, and whose present four
advised. A scientist, he followed the Royal (sci-
sons have now four wives of different
entific) Society’s 1667 advice to use “a close,
nations....Here individuals of all nations are
naked, natural way of speaking; positive expres-
melted into a new race of men, whose labors
sions, clear senses, a native easiness, bringing
and posterity will one day cause changes in
all things as near the mathematical plainness as
the world.
they can.”
Despite his prosperity and fame, Franklin
never lost his democratic sensibility, and he was
an important figure at the 1787 convention at
18
THE POLITICAL PAMPHLET:
English might be a second lan-
Thomas Paine (1737-1809)
guage. Thomas Jefferson’s original
The passion of Revolutionary lit-
draft of the Declaration of In-
erature is found in pamphlets, the
dependence is clear and logical,
most popular form of political liter-
but his committee’s modifications
ature of the day. Over 2,000 pam-
made it even simpler. The Fed-
phlets were published during the
eralist Papers, written in support of
Revolution. The pamphlets thrilled
the Constitution, are also lucid,
patriots and threatened loyalists;
logical arguments, suitable for
they filled the role of drama, as they
debate in a democratic nation.
were often read aloud in public to
excite audiences. American sol-
NEOCLASSISM: EPIC, MOCK
diers read them aloud in their
EPIC, AND SATIRE
camps; British Loyalists threw them
Unfortunately, “literary” writing
into public bonfires.
was not as simple and direct as
homas Paine’s pamphlet
political writing. When trying to
Common Sense sold over
write poetry, most educated au-
T100,000 copies in the first
thors stumbled into the pitfall of
three months of its publication. It is
elegant neoclassicism. The epic, in
still rousing today. “The cause of
particular, exercised a fatal attrac-
America is in a great measure the
tion. American literary patriots felt
cause of all mankind,” Paine wrote,
sure that the great American Rev-
voicing the idea of American excep-
olution naturally would find ex-
tionalism still strong in the United
pression in the epic — a long, dra-
States — that in some fundamental
matic narrative poem in elevated
sense, since America is a democra-
language, celebrating the feats of a
tic experiment and a country theo-
legendary hero.
retically open to all immigrants, the
Many writers tried but none suc-
fate of America foreshadows the
ceeded. Timothy Dwight, (1752-
fate of humanity at large.
1817), one of the group of writers
Political writings in a democracy
known as the Hartford Wits, is an
THOMAS PAINE
had to be clear to appeal to the vot-
example. Dwight, who eventually
ers. And to have informed voters,
became the president of Yale
universal education was promoted
University, based his epic, The
by many of the founding fathers.
Conquest of Canaan (1785), on the
One indication of