The fourth contact situation was centered around the showing of two 15 minute films, both devoted to maritime topics. The procedure of a joint wait in front of the building (while the projector was being "fixed") and free choice of seats was followed. The Eagles passed the Rattler cabin on the way, and were yelled at by Rattlers. The staff moved away. There was again the exchange of hostile remarks, again the same "Ladies first" remark. During the movie there was practically no exchange between groups. But there was some exchange during the change of films. The seating arrangement was strikingly along group lines. When the event ended, around 9:30 P. M., the staff walked out without telling the boys to leave or anything else.
The boys arose and went out, intermingling. But at the door they completely split - each group in the direction of its respective cabin.
The fifth contact situation was planned as breakfast the following morning. The positions of the tables in the mess hall had been completely changed, so that any habitual fixations on a particular table would be broken. The two tables, which had been placed across the mess hall, now ran longitudinally; and the staff table was moved to the opposite end of the hal - away from the [p. 157] boys. (At no meal during any of the three stages did any of the staff members sit at any of the subjects' tables in the mess hall.) When both groups came in front of the hall, the counselors and other authority figures withdrew on a pretext. During a short wait an argument arose as to which group had the most firecrackers. Again a person who had no authority in the eyes of the subjects announced that breakfast was ready. The same "Ladies first" ritual followed.
One of the low status Rattlers (Allen) happened to be the first one in front of the Rattler line. He picked up his food first and carried his tray to the table by the south wall of the mess hall. (The south side of the mess hall was in the general direction of the Eagle area.) Seeing one Rattler at that table (for the choice of which there was no facilitation from previous experience), all the rest of the Rattlers sat at that table. This, of course, determined that the Eagles choose the table by the north wall of the mess hall. During the meal there was razzing and yelling, but not as intense as during supper on the previous night. There were attempts at kicking each other between two different Rattler and Eagle pairs during the course of breakfast.
The sixth contact situation was planned in relation to shooting firecrackers. It was the Fourth of July. In line with the decision not to appeal to values from the larger setting in achieving reduction of intergroup friction, and in line with the subjects' preference, separate ceremonies appropriate to the national holiday were held by each group. However, the shooting of firecrackers was planned as a special contact situation. On the previous day, the Eagles went to town as a group and bought firecrackers with their staff. A similar supply of firecrackers was bought for the Rattlers. Both groups were taken in close succession to a place by the wayside outside of the State Park area to shoot their firecrackers. (It is prohibited to shoot firecrackers within the park area, and the camp is within its bounds.) Wilson of the Eagles said that he didn't want to get out of the truck if they had to shoot their firecrackers with the Rattlers. The subjects were told that they could shoot their firecrackers with anyone they wanted to. Both groups started shooting them at about the same time. At no time was there intermingling of the two groups. At one particular time, Simpson (R) and Clark (E) were closest to one another.
Simpson accused Clark of shooting a rock up in the air and hitting him on the head.
[p. 158] The seventh contact situation: Both groups arrived at the mess hal for lunch at the same time, as planned. All staff members withdrew from the immediate area of contact. From that distance, conversation within or between groups could not be heard. Each group stayed on the side of the mess hal entrance nearest its own cabin. There was no crossing-over between groups.
When the announcement "food is ready" was made, both groups moved in. This time the Eagles rushed in first to form the line to pick up trays and food. The Rattlers followed them.
McGraw (E), who was the first person through the line, sat at the same table that the Eagles had used in the morning after the new table arrangement.
After eating for a while, someone threw something, and the fight was on. The fight consisted of throwing rolls, napkins rolled in a ball, mashed potatoes, etc. accompanied by yelling the standardized unflattering words at each other. The throwing continued for about 8-10 minutes, then the cook announced that cake and ice cream were ready for them. Some members of each group went after their dessert, but most of them continued throwing things awhile longer.
As soon as each gobbled his dessert, he resumed throwing. As the Eagles were leaving they shouted at the Rattlers that they would resume the fight at supper, and the Rattlers responded to this challenge with counter-challenges.
After describing the events summarized above, the Eagle participant observer added the following comment to his report written that day: "It was apparent by this time that mere contact between the groups without the introduction of superordinate goals was going to be insufficient
to reduce the negative between the groups." The Rattler participant observer wrote in his daily report his opinion concerning the inadequacy of mere contact situations in reducing the intergroup friction and name-calling in much stronger terms.
The intergroup events accompanying and following the series of contact situations summarized above confirm the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 1, Stage 3
It is predicted that contact in itself will not produce marked decrease in the existing state of tension between [p. 159] groups.
[ Classics Editor's note: Apologies for the quality of the above images. The "waffle" pattern was in the source images. ]
Accordingly, it was decided to start introducing interaction situations involving common superordinate goals, instead of situations involving mere contact. In spite of the fact that the activity engaged in during contacts (such as eating, shooting firecrackers) was gratifying or pleasing for each individual member within the in-group bounds, the mere fact of contact had no positive effect toward reducing existing hostility.
C. Intergroup Interaction Involving Superordinate Goals
Thus, contacts which did not involve superordinate goals, in the sense defined at the outset (Chapter 2), were far from effective in reducing intergroup friction. If anything such contacts served as occasions for further irritation and for expressing unflattering attitudes of group against group.
At this point we turned to procedures suitable for testing the main hypothesis concerning the reduction of intergroup conflict:
When groups in a state of friction are brought into contact under conditions embodying superordinate goals, the attainment of which is compelling but which cannot be achieved by the efforts of one group alone, they will tend to cooperate toward the common goal. (Hypothesis 2, Stage 3)
The present section will be devoted to a summary report of stimulus conditions introduced which were conducive to the emergence of superordinate goals and to reactions of the subjects obtained by various measurement techniques. Thus this section includes: 1. A brief account of stimulus conditions introduced for the arousal of superordinate goals and observational data relevant to the hypothesis stated above.
2. Sociometric choices of group members revealing their attitudes toward in-group and out-group members and a comparison of these choices with those obtained at the end of Stage 2.
3. Judgment indices of attitudes toward the respective [p. 160] in-groups and outgroups in the form of stereotype ratings and their comparison with the stereotype ratings obtained at the end of Stage 2.
1. Superordinate Goals and Interaction Episodes Related to Them The Drinking Water Problem: The first superordinate goal to be introduced pertained to drinking-water at a time when both groups faced the prospect of thirst and became progressively thirstier with the successive steps of activities directed toward solution of the problem. In general outline, the plan consisted of having members of both groups perceive common deprivation which could be alleviated (so it appeared to them) by the cooperation of members of both groups. Thus a situation of functional interdependence involving a common goal was produced.
First, a word concerning the preparation of stimulus conditions is necessary. All of the drinking water in the camp, which is distributed to various parts of the camp (kitchen, latrines, drinking fountains located near cabins and other convenient spots), comes from a reservoir on the mountain north of the camp. It is pumped up to the large water tank higher on the mountain (about 1 1/4 miles from camp) and stored there in sufficient supply for a certain period. A valve at one end of the tank controls the flow of water and can be cut off to prevent the passage of water to the main pipe which, as it reaches the camp grounds, runs into various smaller pipes to the various outlets. (For location of the places and items mentioned above, see the map, Chapter 3.)
Several hours before the execution of the plan, the valve on the tank was cut off, leaving only the water already in the main pipe to supply the camp for the time being. After turning off the valve, two large boulders were placed over it, which had to be removed before the valve could be turned on again. In addition, the faucet at the end of the tank opposite the valve was stuffed with pieces of sacking so that no water came from the faucet when it was turned on. The latter device was planned to require a solution of the problem, since getting a drink when members of both groups were thirsty would itself have very high common appeal value.
Right after the water was cut off at the tank, the boys were [p. 161] informed by their respective participant observers that there might be a water shortage in the whole camp as there seemed to be some trouble with the water system, but that it was being investigated. They advised members of each group to fill their canteens in case the water shortage became worse. The boys were told that in the past, on occasion, vandals had tinkered with the water system, causing difficulties. This warning was given in order that the blame for their thirst not be placed on the camp staff. After this all of the remaining water was drained out through faucets which were not within sight of the subjects. (Of course, for any emergency sufficient water was stored in the small tank in the kitchen both for cooking and drinking purposes. But the subjects did not know this.)
The execution of the plan was postponed until 4 P. M. so that there would not be much, if any, water left in the subjects' canteens. Before actual efforts toward getting the water to run again the topic of the water shortage became a common topic for concern in both groups.
The experimentally planned activities may be summarized as follows: All members of both groups were present at the announcement of the complete failure of the water system, depriving the entire camp of drinking water. In order to make the situation real to the subjects, this took place at the spot where the end of the main water pipe from the tank was visible and where there were a number of faucets in a row which could be turned on. Thus subjects could see for themselves that there was not a drop of water coming through.
After the above demonstration the subjects were informed that there was something wrong with the water system and that the trouble could not be located. They were told that the difficulty might be a leakage in the pipe between camp and the reservoir, it might be at the pump by the reservoir, or it might be at the tank. Thus the first step was to find the cause so that necessary steps could be taken to remedy the difficulty. The announcement went on to say that the help of about 25 people was needed.
Upon hearing the announcement, members of both groups volunteered to help. The area between the camp and the reservoir, it was announced, was to be divided into four segments to be inspected by four different searching details. One staff member would accompany each detail. It was announced that five boys [p. 162] were needed for the area around the reservoir.
This was the detail to go farthest, and it would be accompanied by an Eagle staff member. The volunteers that stepped forward for this detail were al Eagles. The detail for the segment adjacent to the reservoir area up to the tank was to be accompanied by a Rattler staff member.
Volunteers for that detail were all Rattlers. The same alternation was followed for the remaining two segments with an Eagle staff member and Rattler staff member accompanying the two details, respectively. Without any exception, each detail consisted of volunteers from the same group as the staff member accompanying the detail. (A detail of 2 boys and a staff member was to stay by the faucets in camp for an hour, and then go to report at the tank area.) The details at the end segments were to move toward the tank area, reporting on the way to the adjacent detail if they found any difficulty. All groups would congregate at the tank to investigate it if nothing was found along the way. Thus, the division of the area into segments and alternation of adjacent segments between Rattlers and Eagles produced a situation of interdependence in a coordinated activity.
In a little over an hour, all the details from both sides of the tank congregated at the tank, of course having found nothing wrong on the way. Thus the tank was the only alternative left for locating the trouble.
The first object to attract attention of everyone in both groups was the faucet at the north end of the tank, since most of them were thirsty. Some of the Rattlers still had a little water in their canteens, but the Eagles did not even have their canteens with them. The appeal of water was great and urgent, especially for the Eagles. (Both groups had come to this faucet for drinking water during their camp-outs at the reservoir during Stage 1.) Of course, no water came out of the faucet. The next problem was immediate and compelling: to secure drinking water then and there. The fact that no water came out of the faucet led to a discussion within and between groups as to whether there was any water in the tank. During this discussion, there was pounding of the sides of the tank. Then some Rattlers discovered a ladder about 30 feet from the tank (where it had been moved in the morning when the faucet was stopped up and the valve turned off). There was rejoicing over this discovery. Immediately some of the Rattlers brought the ladder to the side of the tank and climbed to the top, followed by the Eagles. The boys took turns taking off the lid to inspect the inside of the tank (see [p. 163] picture in this chapter). There were several exclamations that the tank was three-fourths full.
The discovery of a practically full tank turned attention of both groups to the faucet again. In investigating the outlet, Mills (R leader) found the sack stuffed in the faucet. Almost all the boys gathered around the faucet to try to clear it. Suggestions from members of both groups concerning effective ways to do it were thrown in from all sides simultaneously with actual efforts at the work itself. Especially Craig (E) gave continual advice to whoever was trying to get the material out, no matter which group that boy belonged to.
In the actual extraction of the sack, various improvised tools (knives) belonging to different individuals were used. Mills worked for a time; Clark (E) was one of the first to work, making suggestions at the same time. First one and then another boy tried to get the sacking out: Simpson (R), Clark (E), Mills (R), McGraw (E), Brown (R), Mason (E), Allen (R), Swift (R) all taking turns. The work on the faucet lasted over 45 minutes, during the first 30 minutes being the focus of interest for most members of both groups. During this first period, there were continually from 15 to 19 boys standing in a tight bunch watching the work. A few drops of water aroused enthusiasm, but completion of the task was not in view. Interest started lagging toward the end. At this point Everett (R) suggested that the Eagle participant observer (calling him by his first name) was a big guy, and how about letting him try it. (This same Everett had been very vociferous in denouncing this same Eagle staff member when he had come near the Rattler cabin on some occasion.) Everett's suggestion was taken up by other boys, and the staff took over, eventually completing the job with the use of wrenches.
When the water finally came through, there was common rejoicing. The Rattlers did not object to having the Eagles get ahead of them when they all got a drink, since the Eagles did not have can teens with them and were thirstier. No protests or "Ladies first" type of remarks were made.
When the first enthusiasm for the work on clearing the faucet had died down, individual drifting away from the faucet increased. Among these boys there was a noticeable increase of mingling across group lines in such activities as catching lizards and making [p. 164] wooden whistles.
This good-natured mingling in several spontaneous activities took place within the framework of the common deprivation and of the interdependence that arose as a consequence of the immediate concern of everyone. This was the first striking instance in which we observed friendly interaction among members of the two groups on a general scale. For example, during the work, Everett (R) offered the use of his knife. Craig (E) told him that if it worked he would shake hands with him for supplying the tool that did the job.
After the Eagle staff member took over work on the faucet, staff called attention to the fact that there should be a valve leading to the main water pipe, which might be the cause of the water shortage at camp. Some of the Rattlers went to that side of the tank and removed the boulders, then turned on the valve. Subsequently there were contradictory claims as to who discovered the valve.
It cannot be said that the negative attitudes toward the out-groups, the standardized unfavorable stereotypes were disappearing as a consequence of the introduction of this single superordinate goal of high appeal value, even though there was cooperation and friendly mingling at the time of the activities related to it. The carry-over effects of the negative intergroup attitudes were observed at supper that very evening, and on subsequent occasions as well.
At supper time the procedure was followed again of having both groups wait for a short time before the meal while the staff members withdrew from the contact area. When announcement was made for the groups to enter, the Eagles went in first, and this time the Rattlers expressed the insinuation: "Ladies first." During the meal, members of both groups started throwing leftovers, bottle caps, and paper. Thus they did live up to the public announcement which they made to each other when leaving the mess hall after lunch that they would resume the
"garbage fight," as the Eagles cal ed it. At this supper, throwing of objects started in a rather good-natured way, but, in time, took on serious proportions. The throwing continued and had to be stopped.
On the way to breakfast the following morning, the Rattlers saw the Eagles coming and made several derisive comments. Barton (R) remarked that the Eagles had gone in the mess hall [p.
165] first the last time. When they got close to the front of the mess hall, Simpson (high status R) said "Howdy," and was answered by several Eagles. The same procedure was followed of having both groups wait for a time while staff members kept away. The Eagle entered first again. While in line the Rattlers started singing the Caisson Song and were joined by several Eagles. As the boys started putting food on their trays, the cook (who had no special authority in their eyes) asked for their attention. She told them that throwing things at each other during meals made such a mess and cleaning up was taking so much time that she would not be able to cook such good meals if it did not stop. This appeal was effective. During breakfast there was some horseplay and intermingling between groups. Someone started to throw something and McGraw (E) said, "Remember, you guys, no throwing." The groups parted peacefully after the meal.
In spite of the cessation of "garbage fights" there was tangible evidence of negative intergroup attitudes when the Rattlers were told before lunch that there was a possibility of going to a nice lake 60 miles away for an overnight camp-out. The Rattlers showed general enthusiasm until Mills (R leader) asked, "Are those damn Eagles going?" Another Rattler added, "I'm not going if they go."
Similarly, when the Eagles were told of the possibility of getting a movie to show, Craig said,
"Do we have to do it with the Rattlers?" Later he said, "We want to do some things by ourselves." On the other hand, other Eagles indicated that they had no serious objection if the Rattlers were in on the movie too.
The Problem of Securing a Movie: The next superordinate goal to be introduced was a feature-length movie which has been a favorite for boys of this age level. Two films had been chosen after consulting experts on films and brought to camp along with other stimulus materials. The plan was to ascertain the appeal value of the film for the boys and then to make securing it (supposedly from the neighboring town) dependent on both groups contributing a sum of money which would appear rather prohibitive for one group to contribute alone.
In the afternoon, the boys were called together and the staff suggested the possibility of securing either "Treasure Island" or "Kidnapped": Both groups yelled approval of these films.
After [p. 166] some discussion, one Rattler said, "Everyone that wants Treasure Island raise their hands." The majority of members in both groups gave enthusiastic approval to "Treasure Island" even though a few dissensions were expressed to this choice.
Then the staff announced that securing the film would cost $15 and the camp could not pay the whole sum. Members of both groups began to make all kinds of suggestions. Mills (R leader) jumped out between the two groups and suggested $5 each from the camp, Rattlers, and Eagles. Myers (E) said the camp should pay $5, the Rattlers $10, and the Eagles nothing.
Harrison (R) suggested that the Eagles pay $15, and the camp and Rattlers nothing. Simpson (R) suggested that the Eagles pay $5 and the Rattlers $2. Then Myers (E) proposed that each group pay $3. 50. Mills (R) took this suggestion from Myers (E) and called for a vote. He counted votes in both groups. The proposal was strongly supported. After this, there was heated discussion in both groups concerning who would do the figuring for each group to find out how much each member of the respective groups would have to pay. While the groups were figuring this out, there was a great deal of horseplay and intermixing of the groups.
At last, each group came up with its solution. The Rattlers figured that each of the 11 Rattlers would have to contribute 31¢. Each of the 9 Eagles would have to contribute 39¢ toward securing the common goal. The Rattlers asked their staff members to contribute so that their total would come to $3.50. McGraw and Myers (E's) told the Eagle staff members that they would have to pay too, and gave the reason that the staff would get to see the movie too. Both staff members agreed to do so. Martin read the list of contributions from the Rattlers, and McGraw those of the Eagles.
It is worth noting that in individual terms this scheme of contribution was not equitable. But it was an equitable solution between the two groups. The cooperation needed to secure the movie was cooperation between groups, and it was perceived as such by individual members.
Therefore, the solution was seen as an equitable one by individual members of both groups.
At supper there were no objections to eating together. Some scuffling and play at sticking chewing gum around occurred between members of the two groups, but it involved fewer boys on both sides than were usually involved in such encounters. It [p. 167] looked like a fist fight might develop between Simpson (R) and Mason (E), but their tempers cooled off.
After supper, "Treasure Island" was shown in the mess hall. Five rows of benches were placed in the hall with an aisle in between. Both groups were waiting to enter, and were told to come in. There was some confusion momentarily as to where to sit. When the milling about stopped, the seating arrangement was pretty much along group lines with a few exceptions. The boys were absorbed in the film, and there was very little conversation.
*****
In line with the main hypotheses of this stage, it was planned to have a series of situations embodying superordinate goals. However, a serious concern arose for further planning of superordinate goals. It became evident that in a camp situation like this one, isolated from a city or town and from outside influences, the facilities for daily activities were by this time acquiring decidedly routine aspects. Since the subjects had come to know the facilities afforded by the camp and in the general surroundings, it became increasingly difficult to introduce superordinate goals that would arouse high motivational appeal but were also inherent in the situations. Therefore, an attempt was made during the day to secure additional transportation facilities to take both groups to Cedar Lake, which is 60 miles southeast of the camp and affords complete detachment from the accustomed camp facilities in many respects.Of course, this procedure does not imply that under all circumstances and for all groups one has to search for an isolated place to find situations embodying superordinate goals for functional y related groups. If there are goals of sufficient strength for both groups in question, or serious issues in which both groups are involved with high concern, these superordinate goals can be introduced even within some neighborhood of a metropolis. But in a camp situation which was by now familiar and with subjects of the age level in question, the alternatives for superordinate goals were limited in number. The immediate possibilities at the camp were fairly static, since no outside influences intervened.
[p. 168] The attempt to carry out the plan to go to Cedar Lake on the day following the showing of "Treasure Island" failed because transportation was not secured. Therefore, instead of introducing superordinate goals in an improvised way with items which might appear artificial to the subjects, the day was marked by a return to in-group areas and activities.
While waiting in line for breakfast on the day following the movie, the two groups discussed and reached an agreement that the Rattlers would go into breakfast first, and at lunch the Eagles would be first. (Such alternation had been discussed the previous day, but no agreement reached.) Thus the notion of "taking turns" was introduced by the boys on the intergroup level to regulate matters of mutual concern, rather than each group rushing to be first.
The Rattler group went to their hideout to look after their boat, tent, and other equipment there to take them back to their cabin. One of the activities they engaged in there had important carry-over effects and significant implications in the course of intergroup interaction on the following day when the joint overnight camp actually did materialize. Before lunch, the Rattlers again started chopping on a big, dead pine tree which they had been trying to chop down for two days in leisure moments. When the trunk was chopped through, the tree still did not fall.
The standing tree constituted both a challenge and a hazard (since it might crash down at some inopportune moment). The boys discussed how to get it down. One suggested that they had beaten the Eagles at Tug-of-War, so let's have a Tug-of-War against the tree. The tug-rope was tied to the tree, and they all pulled the tree down - to everyone's great satisfaction. Thus, a means once used in conflict with the out-group was now employed to defeat a stubborn and hazardous tree.
In the meantime, the staff was planning the overnight camp at Cedar Lake, both its introduction to the groups and its execution. Both groups were asked to name their preferred activities for the remaining three days of camp, with the promise that as many as possible would be carried out. The selection of activities was discussed in the t