social risk (products important to the peer group), or psychological risk (the wrong deci-
sion might cause the consumer some concern and anxiety) . In maki ng these decisions, it
is worth
time anci energies to consider solution alternatives carefu Jly. A complex
of decision making is therefore more likely for high-involvement purchases. Low-involvement
decisions are more straightforward, require little risk, are repetitive, and often lead to a habit: they are not very important to the consumer.s Financial, social, and psychological risks are
not nearly as great. In such cases, it may not be worth the consu mer's time and effort to
search for information about brands or to consider a wide range of alternatives. A low-
involvement purchase therefore generally entails a limited process of decision making.
purchase of a new computer is an example of high involvement, while the purchase of a
hamburger is a low-involvement decision.
When a consumer has bought a similar product many ti mes in the past, the decision
making is likely to be simple, regardless of whether it is a high- or low-involvement deci-
sion . Suppose a consumer initiaJly bought a product after much care and involvement, was
satisfied, and continued to buy the product. The customer's careful consideration of the prod-
uct and sati:faction has produced brand loyalty, which is the result of involvement with the product decision.
Once a customer is brand-loyal, a simple decision-making process is all that is required
for subsequent purchases. The consumer now buys the product through habit, which means
making a decision without the use of additional information or the evaluation of alterna-
tive
Market Offerings
Another relevan t set of situational influences on consumer prob-
lem solving is the available market offerings. The more extensive the product and brand
choices available to the consumer, the more complex the purchase decision process is likely
to
For example, if you already have purchased or are considering purchasing a DVD,
you know there are many brands to choose from-Sony, Samsung, Panasonic, Mitsubishi,
Toshiba, and Sanyo, to name several. Each manufacturer sells several models that differ
in terms of some of the following features-single or multiple event selection,
cODtrol (wired or wireless) , slow motion, stop action, variable-speed scan, tracking con-
trol, and so on . What criteria are important to you ? Is purchasing a DVD an easy deci-
sion? If a consumer has a need that can be met by only one product or one outlet in the
relevant market, the decision is relatively simple. Either purchase the product or let the
need go unmet.
This is not ideal from the customer' s perspective, but it can occur. For example, sup-
pose you are a student on a campus in a small town many miles from another marketplace.
Your campus and town has only one bookstore. You need a textbook for class; only one
specific book will do and only one outlet has the book for sale. The limitation on alterna-
tive market offerings can clearly influence your purchase behavior.
As you saw in the DVD example, when the extent of market offerings increases, the
complexity of the problem-solving process and the consumers ' need for information also
increases. A wider selection of market offerings is better from the custo mer's point of view,
because it allows them to tailor their purchases to their specific needs. However, it may
confuse and frustrate the consumer so that less-than-optimal choices are
Demographic Influences
An important set of factors that should not be overlooked
in attempting to understand and respond to consumers is demographics. Such variables as
age, sex, income, education, marital status, and mobility can all have significant influence
on consumer behavior. One study showed that age and education have strong relationships
BUYER BEHAVIOR AS PROBLEM SOLVING
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to
selection by female shoppers. This was particularly true for women's suits or dresses,
linens and bedding, cosmetics, and women's sportswear.
DeBeers Limited, which has an eighty percent share of the market for diamonds used
in engagement rings, employed
consumer demographic profile in developing their pro-
motional program. Their target market consists of single women and men between the ages
of 18 and 24. They combined this profile with some lifestyle aspects to develop their pro-
motional program.
People in different income brackets also tend to buy different types of products and
different qualities. Thus various income groups often shop in very different ways. This means
that income can be an important variable in defining the target group. Many designer cloth-
ing shops, for example, aim at higher-income shoppers, while a store like K-mart appeals
to middle- and lower-income groups
External Influences
External factors are another important set of influences on consumer behavior. Among the
many societal elements that can affect consumer problem solving are culture, social class,
reference groups, and family.
Culture
A person's culture is represented by a large group of people with a simi-
lar heritage. The American culture, which is a subset of the Western culture, is of primary
interest here. Traditional American culture values include hard work, thrift, achievement,
security, and the like. Marketing strategies targeted to those with such a cultural heritage
should show the product or service as reinforcing these traditional values. The three com-
ponents of culture-beliefs, values, and customs-are each somewhat different. A belief is a proposition
reflects a person's particular knowledge and assessment of something
(that is,
believe that ..."). Values are general statements that guide behavior and influ-
ence beliefs. The function of a value system is to help a person choose between alterna-
tives in everyday life.
Customs are overt modes of behavior that constitute culturally approved ways of behav-
ing in specific situations. For example, taking one's mother out for dinner and buying her
presents for Mother's Day is an American custom that Hallmark and other card companies
support enthusiastically.
The American culture with its social values can be divided into various subcultures.
For example, African-Americans constitute a significant American subculture in most U.S.
cities. A consumer's racial heritage can exert an influence on media usage and various other
aspects of the purchase decision process.
Social Class
Social class, which is detennined by such factors as occupation, wealth,
income, education, power, and prestige, is another societal factor that can affect consumer
behavior. The best-known classification system includes upper-upper, lower-upper, upper-
middle, lower-middle, upper-lower, and lower-lower class. Lower-middle and upper-lower
classes comprise the mass market.
The upper-upper class and lower-upper class consist of people from wealthy fami-
lies who are locally prominent. They tend to live in large homes furnished with art and
antiques. They are the primary market for rare jewelry and designer originals, tending to
shop at exclusive retailers. The upper-middle class is made up of professionals, managers,
business owners. The are ambitious, future-oriented people who have succeeded eco-
nomically
now seek to enhance their quality of life. Material goods often take on major
symbolic meaning for this group. They also tend to be very civic-minded and are involved
in many worthy causes. The lower-middle class consists of mid-level white-collar workers.
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