a variety of adventures; and where that talent is wanting, they
appropriate such as belong to others, in order to satisfy their vanity.
In this phaenomenon are contained two curious experiments, which if we
compare them together, according to the known rules, by which we judge
of cause and effect in anatomy, natural philosophy, and other sciences,
will be an undeniable argument for that influence of the double
relations above-mentioned. By one of these experiments we find, that an
object produces pride merely by the interposition of pleasure; and that
because the quality, by which it produces pride, is in reality nothing
but the power of producing pleasure. By the other experiment we find,
that the pleasure produces the pride by a transition along related
ideas; because when we cut off that relation the passion is immediately
destroyed.. A surprising adventure, in which we have been ourselves
engaged, is related to us, and by that means produces pride: But the
adventures of others, though they may cause pleasure, yet for want of
this relation of ideas, never excite that passion. What farther proof
can be desired for the present system?
There is only one objection to this system with regard to our body:
which is, that though nothing be more agreeable than health, and more
painful than sickness, yet commonly men are neither proud of the one,
nor mortifyed with the other. This will easily be accounted for, if
we consider the second and fourth limitations, proposed to our general
system. It was observed, that no object ever produces pride or humility,
if it has not something peculiar to ourself; as also, that every
cause of that passion must be in some measure constant, and hold some
proportion to the duration of our self, which, is its object. Now as
health and sickness vary incessantly to all men, and there is none, who
is solely or certainly fixed in either, these accidental blessings and
calamities are in a manner separated from us, and are never considered
as connected with our being and existence. And that this account is just
appears hence, that wherever a malady of any kind is so rooted in our
constitution, that we no longer entertain any hopes of recovery, from
that moment it becomes an object of humility; as is evident in old men,
whom nothing mortifies more than the consideration of their age and
infirmities. They endeavour, as long as possible, to conceal their
blindness and deafness, their rheums and gouts; nor do they ever confess
them without reluctance and uneasiness. And though young men are not
ashamed of every head-ach or cold they fall into, yet no topic is so
proper to mortify human pride, and make us entertain a mean opinion of
our nature, than this, that we are every moment of our lives subject to
such infirmities. This sufficiently proves that bodily pain and sickness
are in themselves proper causes of humility; though the custom of
estimating every thing by comparison more than by its intrinsic worth
and value, makes us overlook these calamities, which we find to be
incident to every one, and causes us to form an idea of our merit and
character independent of them.
We are ashamed of such maladies as affect others, and are either
dangerous or disagreeable to them. Of the epilepsy; because it gives a
horror to every one present: Of the itch; because it is infectious:
Of the king's-evil; because it commonly goes to posterity. Men always
consider the sentiments of others in their judgment of themselves. This
has evidently appeared in some of the foregoing reasonings; and will
appear still more evidently, and be more fully explained afterwards.
SECT. IX OF EXTERNAL ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
But though pride and humility have the qualities of our mind and body
that is self, for their natural and more immediate causes, we find
by experience, that there are many other objects, which produce these
affections, and that the primary one is, in some measure, obscured and
lost by the multiplicity of foreign and extrinsic. We found a vanity
upon houses, gardens, equipages, as well as upon personal merit and
accomplishments; and though these external advantages be in themselves
widely distant from thought or a person, yet they considerably influence
even a passion, which is directed to that as its ultimate object,
This, happens when external objects acquire any particular relation to
ourselves, and are associated or connected with us. A beautiful fish
in the ocean, an animal in a desart, and indeed any thing that neither
belongs, nor is related to us, has no manner of influence on our vanity,
whatever extraordinary qualities it may be endowed with, and whatever
degree of surprize and admiration it may naturally occasion. It must be
some way associated with us in order to touch our pride.
Its idea must
hang in a manner, upon that of ourselves and the transition from the one
to the other must be easy and natural.
But here it is remarkable, that though the relation of resemblance
operates upon the mind in the same manner as contiguity and causation,
in conveying us from one idea to another, yet it is seldom a foundation
either of pride or of humility. If we resemble a person in any of the
valuable parts of his character, we must, in some degree, possess the
quality, in which we resemble him; and this quality we always chuse to
survey directly in ourselves rather than by reflexion in another person,
when we would found upon it any degree of vanity. So that though a
likeness may occasionally produce that passion by suggesting a more
advantageous idea of ourselves, it is there the view fixes at last, and
the passion finds its ultimate and final cause.
There are instances, indeed, wherein men shew a vanity in resembling a
great man in his countenance, shape, air, or other minute circumstances,
that contribute not in any degree to his reputation; but it must be
confessed that this extends not very far, nor is of any considerable
moment in these affections. For this I assign the following reason. We
can never have a vanity of resembling in trifles any person, unless
he be possessed of very shining qualities, which give us a respect and
veneration for him. These qualities, then, are, properly speaking, the
causes of our vanity, by means of their relation to ourselves. Now after
what manner are they related to ourselves? They are parts of the person
we value, and consequently connected with these trifles; which are
also supposed to be parts of him. These trifles are connected with the
resembling qualities in us; and these qualities in us, being parts,
are connected with the whole; and by that means form a chain of several
links of the person we resemble. But besides that this multitude of
relations must weaken the connexion; it is evident the mind, in passing
from the shining qualities to the trivial ones, must by that contrast
the better perceive the minuteness of the latter, and be in some measure
ashamed of the comparison and resemblance.
The relation, therefore, of contiguity, or that of causation, betwixt
the cause and object of pride and humility, is alone requisite to
give rise to these passions; and these relations are nothing else
but qualities, by which the imagination is conveyed from one idea to
another. Now let us consider what effect these can possibly have upon
the mind, and by what means they become so requisite to the production
of the passions. It is evident, that the association of ideas operates
in so silent and imperceptible a manner, that we are scarce sensible of
it, and discover it more by its effects than by any immediate feeling or
perception. It produces no emotion, and gives rise to no new impression
of any kind, but only modifies those ideas, of which the mind was
formerly possessed, and which it coued recal upon occasion. From this
reasoning, as well as from undoubted experience, we may conclude, that
an association of ideas, however necessary, is not alone sufficient to
give rise to any passion.
It is evident, then, that when the mind feels the passion either of
pride or humility upon the appearance of related object, there is,
beside the relation or transition of thought, an emotion or original
impression produced by some other principle. The question is, whether
the emotion first produced be the passion itself, or some other
impression related to it. This question we cannot be long in deciding,
For besides all the other arguments, with which this subject abounds,
it must evidently appear, that the relation of ideas, which experience
shews to be so requisite a circumstance to the production of the
passion, would be entirely superfluous, were it not to second a relation
of affections, and facilitate the transition from one impression
to another. If nature produced immediately the passion of pride or
humility, it would be compleated in itself, and would require no farther
addition or encrease from any other affection. But supposing the first
emotion to be only related to pride or humility, it is easily conceived
to what purpose the relation of objects may serve, and how the two
different associations, of impressions and ideas, by uniting their
forces, may assist each other's operation. This is not only easily
conceived, but I will venture to affirm it is the only manner, in which
we can conceive this subject. An easy transition of ideas, which, of
itself, causes no emotion, can never be necessary, or even useful to
the passions, but by forwarding the transition betwixt some related
impressions. Not to mention, that the same object causes a greater
or smaller degree of pride, not only in proportion to the encrease or
decrease of its qualities, but also to the distance or nearness of the
relation; which is a clear argument for the transition of affections
along the relation of ideas; since every change in the relation produces
a proportionable change in the passion. Thus one part of the preceding
system, concerning the relations of ideas is a sufficient proof of
the other, concerning that of impressions; and is itself so evidently
founded on experience, that it would be lost time to endeavour farther
to prove it.
This will appear still more evidently in particular instances. Men are
vain of the beauty of their country, of their county, of their parish.
Here the idea of beauty plainly produces a pleasure.
This pleasure
is related to pride. The object or cause of this pleasure is, by the
supposition, related to self, or the object of pride. By this double
relation of impressions and ideas, a transition is made from the one
impression to the other.
Men are also vain of the temperature of the climate, in which they were
born; of the fertility of their native soil; of the goodness of the
wines, fruits or victuals, produced by it; of the softness or force of
their language; with other particulars of that kind.
These objects have
plainly a reference to the pleasures of the senses, and are originally
considered as agreeable to the feeling, taste or hearing. How is it
possible they coued ever become objects of pride, except by means of
that transition above-explained?
There are some, that discover a vanity of an opposite kind, and affect
to depreciate their own country, in comparison of those, to which
they have travelled. These persons find, when they are at home, and
surrounded with their countrymen, that the strong relation betwixt them
and their own nation is shared with so many, that it is in a manner lost
to them; whereas their distant relation to a foreign country, which is
formed by their having seen it and lived in it, is augmented by their
considering how few there are who have done the same.
For this reason
they always admire the beauty, utility and rarity of what is abroad,
above what is at home.
Since we can be vain of a country, climate or any inanimate object,
which bears a relation to us, it is no wonder we are vain of the
qualities of those, who are connected with us by blood or friendship.
Accordingly we find, that the very same qualities, which in ourselves
produce pride, produce also in a lesser degree the same affection, when
discovered in persons related to us. The beauty, address, merit, credit
and honours of their kindred are carefully displayed by the proud, as
some of their most considerable sources of their vanity.
As we are proud of riches in ourselves, so to satisfy our vanity we
desire that every one, who has any connexion with us, should likewise be
possest of them, and are ashamed of any one, that is mean or poor, among
our friends and relations. For this reason we remove the poor as far
from us as possible; and as we cannot prevent poverty in some distant
collaterals, and our forefathers are taken to be our nearest relations;
upon this account every one affects to be of a good family, and to be
descended from a long succession of rich and honourable ancestors.
I have frequently observed, that those, who boast of the antiquity of
their families, are glad when they can join this circumstance, that
their ancestors for many generations have been uninterrupted proprietors
of the same portion of land, and that their family has never changed its
possessions, or been transplanted into any other county or province.
I have also observed, that it is an additional subject of vanity, when
they can boast, that these possessions have been transmitted through
a descent composed entirely of males, and that the honour, and fortune
have never past through any female. Let us endeavour to explain these
phaenomena by the foregoing system.
It is evident, that when any one boasts of the antiquity of his family,
the subjects of his vanity are not merely the extent of time and number
of ancestors, but also their riches and credit, which are supposed to
reflect a lustre on himself on account of his relation to them. He first
considers these objects; is affected by them in an agreeable manner;
and then returning back to himself, through the relation of parent and
child, is elevated with the passion of pride, by means of the double
relation, of impressions and ideas. Since therefore the passion depends
on these relations, whatever strengthens any of the relations must also
encrease the passion, and whatever weakens the relations must diminish
the passion. Now it is certain the identity of the possesion strengthens
the relation of ideas arising from blood and kindred, and conveys the
fancy with greater facility from one generation to another, from the
remote ancestors to their posterity, who are both their heirs and their
descendants. By this facility the impression is transmitted more entire,
and excites a greater degree of pride and vanity.
The case is the same with the transmission of the honours and fortune
through a succession of males without their passing through any female.
It is a quality of human nature, which we shall consider
[Part II. Sect,
2.] afterwards, that the imagination naturally turns to whatever is
important and considerable; and where two objects are presented to it,
a small and a great one, usually leaves the former, and dwells entirely
upon the latter. As in the society of marriage, the male sex has the
advantage above the female, the husband first engages our attention;
and whether we consider him directly, or reach him by passing
through related objects, the thought both rests upon him with greater
satisfaction, and arrives at him with greater facility than his consort.
It is easy to see, that this property must strengthen the child's
relation to the father, and weaken that to the mother.
For as all
relations are nothing hut a propensity to pass from one idea ma another,
whatever strengthens the propensity strengthens the relation; and as we
have a stronger propensity to pass from the idea of the children to that
of the father, than from the same idea to that of the mother, we ought
to regard the former relation as the closer and more considerable. This
is the reason why children commonly bear their father's name, and are
esteemed to be of nobler or baser birth, according to his family. And
though the mother should be possest of a superior spirit and genius to
the father, as often happens, the general rule prevails, notwithstanding
the exceprion, according to the doctrine above-explained. Nay even when
a superiority of any kind is so great, or when any other reasons have
such an effect, as to make the children rather represent: the mother's
family than the father's, the general rule still retains such an
efficacy that it weakens the relation, and makes a kind of break in the
line of ancestors. The imagination runs not along them with facility,
nor is able to transfer the honour and credit of the ancestors to their
posterity of the same name and family so readily, as when the transition
is conformable to the general rules, and passes from father to son, or
from brother to brother.
SECT. X OF PROPERTY AND RICHES
But the relation, which is esteemed the closest, and which of all others
produces most commonly the passion of pride, is that of property. This
relation it will be impossible for me fully to explain before I come
to treat of justice and the other moral virtues. It is sufficient to
observe on this occasion, that property may be defined, such a relation
betwixt a person and an object as permits him, but forbids any other,
the free use and possession of it, without violating the laws of justice
and moral equity. If justice, therefore, be a virtue, which has a
natural and original influence on the human mind, property may be looked
upon as a particular species of causation; whether we consider the
liberty it gives the proprietor to operate as he please upon the object
or the advantages, which he reaps from it. It is the same case, if
justice, according to the system of certain philosophers, should be
esteemed an artificial and not a natural virtue. For then honour, and
custom, and civil laws supply the place of natural conscience, and
produce, in some degree, the same effects. This in the mean time is
certain, that the mention of the property naturally carries our thought
to the proprietor, and of the proprietor to the property; which being
a proof of a perfect relation of ideas is all that is requisite to our
present purpose. A relation of ideas, joined to that of impressions,
always produces a transition of affections; and therefore, whenever any
pleasure or pain arises from an object, connected with us by property.
we may be certain, that either pride or humility must arise from
this conjunction of relations; if the foregoing system be solid and
satisfactory. And whether it be so or not, we may soon satisfy ourselves
by the most cursory view of human life.
Every thing belonging to a vain man is the best that is any where to be
found. His houses, equipage, furniture, doaths, horses, hounds, excel
all others in his conceit; and it is easy to observe, that from the
least advantage in any of these, he draws a new subject of pride and
vanity. His wine, if you'll believe him, has a finer flavour than
any other; his cookery is more exquisite; his table more orderly; his
servants more expert; the air, in which he lives, more healthful; the
soil he cultivates more fertile; his fruits ripen earlier and to greater
perfection: Such a thing is remarkable for its novelty; such another for
its antiquity: This is the workmanship of a famous artist; that belonged
once to such a prince or great man: All objects, in a word, that are
useful, beautiful or surprising, or are related to such, may, by means
of property, give rise to this passion. These agree in giving pleasure,
and agree in nothing else. This alone is common to them; and therefore
must be the quality that produces the passion, which is their common
effect. As every new instance is a new argument, and as the instances
are here without number, I may venture to affirm, that scarce any
system was ever so fully proved by experience, as that which I have here
advanced.
If the property of any thing, that gives pleasure either by its
utility, beauty or novelty, produces also pride by a double relation
of impressions and ideas; we need not be surprized, that the power of
acquiring this property, should have the same effect.
Now riches are to
be considered as the power of acquiring the property of what pleases;
and it is only in this view they have any influence on the passions.
Paper will, on many occasions, be considered as riches, and that because
it may convey the power of acquiring money: And money is not riches,
as it is a metal endowed with certain qualities of solidity, weight
and fusibility; but only as it has a relation to the pleasures and
conveniences of life. Taking then this for granted, which is in itself
so evident, we may draw from it one of the strongest arguments I have
yet employed to prove the influence of the double relations on pride and
humility.
It has been observed in treating of the understanding, that the
distinction, which we sometimes make betwixt a power and the exercise
of it, is entirely frivolous, and that neither man nor any other being
ought ever to be thought possest of any ability, unless it be exerted
and put in action. But though this be strictly true in a just and
philosophical way of thinking, it is certain it is not the philosophy
of our passions; but that many things operate upon them by means of the
idea and supposition of power, independent of its actual exercise. We
are pleased when we acquire an ability of procuring pleasure, and are
displeased when another acquires a power of giving pain.
This is evident
from experience; but in order to give a just explication of the matter,
and account for this satisfaction and uneasiness, we must weigh the
following reflections.
It is evident the error of distinguishing power from its exercise
proceeds not entirely from the scholastic doctrine of free-will, which,
indeed, enters very little into common life, and has but small influence
on our vulgar and popular ways of thinking. According to that doctrine,
motives deprive us not of free-will, nor take away our power of
performing or forbearing any action. But according to common notions a
man has no power, where very considerable motives lie betwixt him and
the satisfaction of his desires, and determine him to forbear what he
wishes to perform. I do not think I have fallen into my enemy's power,
when I see him pass me in the streets with a sword by his side, while
I am unprovided of any weapon. I know that the fear of the civil
magistrate is as strong a restraint as any of iron, and that I am in as
perfect safety as if he were chained or imprisoned. But when a person
acquires such an authority over me, that not only there is no external
obstacle to his actions; but also that he may punish or reward me as he
pleases, without any dread of punishment in his turn, I then attribute a
full power to him, and consider myself as his subject or vassal.
Now if we compare these two cases, that of a person, who has very
strong motives of interest or safety to forbear any action, and that of
anoth