ISBN: 978-967-14475-3-6; eISBN: 978-967-14475-2-9 327
Renewable Energy from Agro-industrial Processing Wastes Behera et al.
measured of the biological conversion
gesters, high rate digesters or digesters
capacity of the anaerobic digestion sys-
with combination of different approaches
tem (Patil and Deshmukh, 2015). There is
for bioenergy (Ganesh et al., 2014).
an optimum feed rate for a size of digester
However, most commonly used tech-
is essential for optimum yield of biogas
niques of bio-hydrogen production, in-
(Patil and Deshmukh, 2015). Shen et al.
cluding direct bio-photolysis, indirect bio-
(2013) performed the anaerobic co-
photolysis, photo-fermentation and dark-
digestion of FVWs and food waste in sin-
fermentation and conventional or modern
gle-phase and two-phase digesters at var-
techniques (Mudroom et al., 2011).
ious organic loading rate (3.5-5.0kg. Vol-
atile solids. m-3. d-1) to investigate bio-
3. Anaerobic digestion process from
methane production (0.328-0.544m3. kg-1.
fruit and vegetable wastes
Volatile solids).
Normally, biogas is composed of
2.3.6. Hydraulic retention time
45-70% methane, 30-45% carbon dioxide,
The amount of time the feedstock
0.5-1.0% hydrogen sulfide, 1-5% water
stays in the digester is known as hydraulic
vapor, and a small amount of other gases
retention time the retention time must be
(hydrogen, ammonia, nitrogen, etc.).
sufficient to carry out the necessary de-
However, the composition varies with the
gree
of
biodegradation
(Patil
and
sources of biodegradable biomass. Bio-
Deshmukh, 2015). Bio methanation of
methane, obtained during anaerobic di-
banana peel and pineapple wastes studied
gestion by the microbial community of
at various hydraulic retention times
biodegradable agricultural and horticul-
showed a higher rate of gas production at
tural substrates/wastes (Singh et al.,
lower retention time (Velmurugan and
2012).
Ramanujam, 2011). The lowest possible
hydraulic retention time for banana peel
3.1. Ensiling and methane generation
was 25 days, resulting maximum rate of
Ensiling techniques is the process of bio
gas production of 0.76 vol/vol/day with
methanation using the storing of forage
36% substrate utilization, while pineap-
crops and various other agricultural
ple-processing waste digesters was oper-
commodities such as mango peel, orange,
ated at 10 days’ hydraulic retention time,
lemon and lime peels, pineapple and to-
with a maximum rate of gas production of
mato processing wastes for a prolong pe-
0.93 vol/vol/day and 58% substrate utili-
riod (Kreuger et al., 2011; Panda et al.,
zation (Hosseini and Abdul Wahid,
2017). Effects of ensiling process, storage
2014). To maximize the yield of biogas
of biological/agricultural silage additives
and to improve its quality (high CH4 con-
are attributed to increases in organic acids
tent and low H2S content) different strate-
and alcohols contents and showed posi-
gies can be followed: 1) daily organic
tive effects on methane yield (Herrmann
loading rate must be kept constant 2) use
et al., 2011). Several processes have been
of well balanced mix of feeding sub-
developed for high rate bio-methanation.
strate/wastes 3) two stages process to sep-
The processes include: 1) up-flow anaer-
arate the hydrolysis and acidogenesis
obic sludge blanket, 2) expanded granular
phases from methanogenesis phase (Sca-
sludge bed, 3) fixed film, 4) fluidized bed
no et al., 2014).
and 5) plug flow. Fang et al. (2011) oper-
ated the up-flow anaerobic sludge
2.3.7. Digester design
blanketreactor using the potato juice for
Various kinds of digesters are
biogas production. The methane potential
used for anaerobic process such as one-
was determined at the highest organic
stage or two-stage digester, wet or dry
loading rates of 5.1 g COD. (L-reactor. d)
digesters, batch or continuous process di-
ISBN: 978-967-14475-3-6; eISBN: 978-967-14475-2-9 328
Renewable Energy from Agro-industrial Processing Wastes Behera et al.
with the methane yield of 240 mL-CH4/g
genes eutrophus and Bacillus licheniform-
volatile solids-added.
is when held under anoxic conditions, can
produce hydrogen from organic sub-
3.2. Acetone-butanol-ethanol production
strates/wastes (Sivagurunathan et al.,
There is also renewed interest in
2016).
reviving
the
acetone-butanol-
ethanolprocess through application of the
3.4. Biodiesel
recombinant strains (Lütke-Eversloh and
The technology implemented for
Bahl, 2011) and process development and
production of liquid biofuels is based on
using
cheaper
agricultural
transformation of food-grade biomass
wastes/substrates (Green, 2011). The bio-
(carbohydrates) into bioethanol and vege-
conversion
of
lignocellulosic
sub-
table oils into biodiesel fuel. The main
strate/wastes to monomeric sugars and its
sources of juices of sugar cane, sugar
consequent fermentation has been sug-
beet, and sweet sorghum, as well as
gested for economic production of ace-
starches of corn, wheat, potato, and some
tone-butanol-ethanol (Amiri et al., 2014).
other
agricultural
plants
(Ioelovich,
A variety of bacterial strains, such as
2015). Oil-seed crops are the largest
Clostridium aurantibutyricum, C. bei-
sources of exploitable biomass to produce
jerinckii and C. butyricum participatein
liquid fuel, bio-diesel (i.e., fatty esters).
acetone-butanol-ethanol production and
Bio-diesel offers enhanced safety charac-
utilize a variety of substrates including
teristics as compared to diesel fuel, hav-
pentose, hexose, starch, and xylan but not
ing no emission of explosive air/fuel va-
cellulose (Bellido et al., 2014). Further,
pors (Bhuiya et al.,2014; Kumar and
development can be directed by manipu-
Sharma, 2015). Considerable research has
lating and controlling the fermentation
been progressed on the use of vegetable
conditions by reducing the toxic effect of
oils as diesel fuel. Vegetable oils such as
products (repression) on cell physiology
soybean oil, sunflower oil, coconut oil,
and promoting one dominant solvent
rapeseed oil, Tung oil, and palm oil are
product during production of acetone-
the best choice (Carlsson, 2009). The
butanol-ethanol.
most common way to produce bio-diesel
is by transesterification, which refers to a
3.3. Microbial hydrogen production
catalyzed chemical reaction of vegetable
Hydrogen is produced by several
oil and an alcohol to yield fatty acid alkyl
processes, such as electrolysis of water,
esters (i.e., biodiesel) and glycerol (Sha-
thermocatalytic reformation of hydrogen-
hid and Jamal, 2011). Indigenous to cen-
rich organic compounds, and biological
tral-south America, Jatropha was intro-
processes. Currently, biological produc-
duced to Africa a few centuries ago. It is
tion of hydrogen (bio-hydrogen) from
currently widely distributed throughout
horticultural residues, using microorgan-
these areas where rural inhabitants gener-
isms, is an exciting new area of technolo-
ally make extensive use of it. Oil from the
gy development (Levin et al., 2004).
seeds of jatropa is used as a bio-diesel
Asian countries possess significant poten-
substitute (Osseweijer et al., 2015).
tial for producing bio-hydrogen from crop
residues. Bio-hydrogen production by
4. Challenges and further prospective
culture of bacteria is highly attractive for
larger-scale applications (Kumar et al.,
The production of bioenergy and
2015). Microbes, including strict anaer-
food production is interrelated and is af-
obes (clostridia, ruminococci and ar-
fected by global change of atmospheric
chaea) and facultative anaerobes, includ-
(rising
CO2
and
tropospheric
ing Escherichia coli and Enterobacter
ozone),climate (temperature and soil
aerogenes and aerobes, including Alcali-
moisture), and land degradation (saliniza-
ISBN: 978-967-14475-3-6; eISBN: 978-967-14475-2-9 329
Renewable Energy from Agro-industrial Processing Wastes Behera et al.
tion, desertification, fertility loss) (Osse-
Aliyu, A. S. Dada, J. O. and Adam, I.
weijer et al., 2015).Recently, global ener-
K. (2015). Current status and future
gy crisis needs optimum yield of bioener-
prospects of renewable energy in Ni-
gy from advanced fermentation technolo-
geria. Renewable and Sustainable
gy converting residues/substrates from
Energy Reviews 48, 336-346.
agro-industries into ethanol, enzyme
Amiri, H. Karimi, K. and Zilouei, H.
technology for hydrolysis of lignocellulo-
(2014). Organosolv pretreatment of
sic materials, immobilization of microor-
rice straw for efficient acetone, buta-
ganisms in pilot-scale for production of
nol,
and
ethanol
produc-
bio-energy. Furthermore, C4-type crops
tion. Bioresource
Technology 152,
possess the features of high photosynthet-
450-456.
ic yield, high rate of CO2 fixation, pro-
Anasontzis, G. E. Zerva, A. Stathopou-
duce more biomass, and resistance to
lou, P. M. Haralampidis, K. Dial-
aridity when compared with C3 crops.
linas, G. Karagouni, A. D. and
Therefore, C4 type of crops are to be
Hatzinikolaou, D. G. (2011). Ho-
more investigated and need to be focused
mologous overexpression of xy-
for further bio-energy production (Koçar
lanase in Fusarium oxysporum in-
and Civaş, 2013).
creases ethanol productivity during
consolidated bioprocessing (CBP) of
5. Concluding remarks
lignocellulosics. Journal of Biotech-
nology 152, 16-23.
To date, bio-fuel has been evolved
Ariunbaatar, J. Panico, A. Esposito, G.
from first to fourth generation and they
Pirozzi, F. and Lens, P. N. (2014).
are mainly differed in feedstock and pro-
Pretreatment methods to enhance an-
duction technologies. The agricultural and
aerobic digestion of organic solid
horticultural residues based energy crops
waste. Applied Energy 123, 143-156.
are critical and needs to be investigated as
Arora, R. Behera, S. and Kumar, S.
raw materials for bio-fuels for today and
(2015).
Bioprospecting
thermo-
for the future demand. To attain the
philic/thermotolerant microbes for
highest sustainability in bio-fuel produc-
production of lignocellulosic ethanol:
tion, continuous research and develop-
A future perspective. Renewable and
ment on all sustainability-aspects is es-
Sustainable Energy Reviews 51, 699-
sential.
717.
Auer, A. VandeBurgt, N.H. Abram, F.
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