the seed galls to form normal healthy
nematode infestation in
agricultural
seeds. Sanitation, the use of clean tools
fields.
and equipments in field also prevent nem-
atodes infestation. Soil amendments and
6.1. Physical methods
frequent irrigation can also help to reduce
The hot water treatment, hot water
nematode-damage of crops.
drenching, rabbing with slow burning ma-
terials, soil solarization, electrical soil
6.2. Biological methods
heating, washing and cleaning of seed etc.
Biological control method of
are the most effective physical methods to
nematodes include the use of predaceous
control nematodes infestations to crops.
and parasitic organisms such as fungi,
For denamatization, rhizomes,
bacteria, protozoans, viruses, nematodes,
bulbs, corns, tubers and fleshy roots of
tardigrades, collembolans, mites etc, even
plantations and also other planting mate-
antagonistic higher plants also. This
rials are submerged into hot water for cer-
method, in fact, should be considered a
tain periods. Prior to plating the seed ma-
skillful manipulation of the biosphere
ISBN: 978-967-14475-3-6; eISBN: 978-967-14475-2-9 62
Management Strategies against Tiny Tigers… Gantait against nematodes pest of agricultural
safety to non-target organisms and the
fields for achieving maximum benefits.
environment as a whole and renewable
There are three types of components of
nature, the botanical pesticides offer al-
biological control of nematodes.
ternate strategy to the prevalence use of
Natural: Where the agent are al-
synthetic nematicides (Mishra, 1998). In-
ready present at levels to be sufficient for
discriminate use of chemical pesticides to
suppression of nematode development.
control nematode pest in agriculture give
Induced: The agents are already
rise to serious problems like food contam-
present in the soil and only their activities
ination, adverse effects on non-target or-
are stimulated by modifying the environ-
ganisms and environment, as well as de-
ment or by applying inciters.
velopment of pesticidal resistance in
Introduced: The agents are applied
many nematode pests. For this reason, the
by man from outside.
use of bio-pesticides of botanical origin
There are more than 50 species of
for the management of plant parasitic
predaceous fungi which have the capacity
nematodes has been increased presently.
to kill nematodes in agricultural field
Different parts of botanicals directly, the
(Jain, 2003). These fungi capture nema-
extracts of botanical parts or the product
todes by traps, mechanical traps and con-
of botanicals are used for nematode man-
stricting rings.
agement.
There are several reports of bacte-
Parts of different plants having
ria, present inside the nematode body.
nematicidal value are used directly
Pasteuria penetrans has been described
against phytonematodes, infesting various
as potential biological agent against nem-
crops (Table 2). Chopped leaves of pine-
atodes. They prevent reproduction and
apple, karanja and neem leaves etc. could
eventually kill the root-knot nematodes
be significantly reduced the root-knot,
and many other species. Some rhizospher-
reniform and other nematodes also. Vari-
ic bacteria like Azotobactor chroococcum,
ous parts of Crotolaria, marigold, Ken-
Azospirilum lipoferum, and some Pseu-
tucky blue grass etc. in powdered form
domonas spp. have found to be promising
also
reduced
nematode
population.
in reducing nematode population. Root-
Chopped castor leaves, Subabool leaves
knot nematode larvae infected with virus-
prevent gall nematodes. Chopped shots of
es were observed to exhibit sluggishness.
latex-bearing plants significantly sup-
pressed the population build up of reni-
6.3. Botanical methods
form and root-knot nematodes.
Due to their facile biodegradabil-
ity, selective toxicity only to target pests,
Table 2: Common names of some important phytonematodes
No.
Genera/Species
Common names
1.
A. fragariae
Spring dwarf nematode
2.
Anguina spp.
Seed gall, Leaf gall nematodes
3.
Anguina tritici
Ear-cockle nematode, Wheat gall nematode.
4.
Aphelenchoides besseyi
Rice white tip nematode, White tip nematode
5.
Aphelenchoides ritzemabosi
Chrysanthemum foliar nematode
6.
Aphelenchoides spp.
Bud and leaf nematodes, foliar nematodes
7.
Belonolaimus spp.
Sting nematodes
8.
Belonololaimus gracilis
Pine sting nematode
9.
Cacopaurus spp.
Sessile nematodes
10.
Criconema spp.
Spine nematodes
11.
Criconemoides citri
Citrus ring nematode
12.
Criconemoides spp.
Ring nematodes
ISBN: 978-967-14475-3-6; eISBN: 978-967-14475-2-9 63
Management Strategies against Tiny Tigers… Gantait Table 2 : Continued…
13.
Ditylenchus angustus
Rice nematode
14.
Ditylenchus destructor
Potato root nematode, Potato tuber nematode,
Iris nematode
15.
Ditylenchus dipsaci
Stem nematode, Tulip root nematode, Bulb
nematode
16.
Ditylenchus myceliophagus
Mushroom spawn nematode
17.
Dolichodorus spp.
Awl nematodes
18.
Dorylaimus spp.
Spear nematodes
19.
Globodera rostochiensis
Golden nematode of potato
20.
Globodera spp.
Cyst nematode
21.
Helicotylenchus spp.
Spiral nematodes
22.
Hemicriconemoides spp.
Sheathoid nematodes
23.
Hemicycliophora spp.
Sheath nematodes
24.
Heterodera avenae
Great root nematode, Cereal nematodes
25.
Heterodera cruciferae
Cabbage cyst nematode
26.
Heterodera glycines
Soybean cyst nematode
27.
Heterodera goettingiana
Pea cyst nematode, Pea root nematode, Alfalfa
root nematode
28.
Heterodera schachtii
Sugar beet nematode
29.
Heterodera spp.
Cyst-forming nematodes
30.
Hirschmanniella oryzae
Rice root nematode
31.
Hoplolaimus spp.
Lance nematode, Spear nematode
32.
Longidorus spp.
Needle nematode
33.
Meloidodera spp.
Cystoid nematode
34.
Meloidogyne arenaria
Peanut root knot nematode
35.
Meloidogyne brevicauda
Indian root knot nematode
36.
Meloidogyne exigua
Coffee root knot nematode, Brazilian root knot
nematode
37.
Meloidogyne incognita
Southern root knot nematode
38.
Meloidogyne javanica
Javanese root knot nematode
39.
Meloidogyne spp.
Root knot nematodes, Root-gall nematodes
40.
Nacobbus spp.
False root knot nematodes
41.
Paratylenchus spp.
Pin nematodes
42.
Pratylenchus spp.
Root lesions nematodes, Meadow nematodes
43.
Radopholus similis
Burrowing nematode
44.
Rhadinaphelenchus cocophilus Coconut palm nematode, Red ring nematode
45.
Rotylenchulus reniformis
Reniform nematode
46.
Rotylenchus spp.
Spiral nematodes
47.
Trichodorus spp.
Stubby root nematodes
48.
Tylenchorhynchus claytoni
Stunt nematode, Teaselate stylet nematode
49.
Tylenchorhynchus martini
Sugarcane stylet nematode
50.
Tylenchorhynchus spp.
Stunt nematode, Stylet nematode.
51.
Tylenchulus semipenetrans
Citrus root nematode
52.
Xiphenema spp.
Dagger nematodes
Certain botanicals in the form of aqueous
charantia L.; leaves of Ageratum coni-
extracts of various parts have great poten-
zoides L., Anacardium occidentale L.,
tial against nematodes, the aqueous ex-
Argemone mexicana L., Datura stramo-
tracts of fresh neem leaves; fruit skin of
nium L. etc.; aqueous root extract of Oci-
Citrus reticulata Blanco and Momordica
mum sanctum L.; seed extracts of
ISBN: 978-967-14475-3-6; eISBN: 978-967-14475-2-9 64
Management Strategies against Tiny Tigers… Gantait Vernonia anthelmintica Wild, Holarrhea
Quarantine principles are tradi-
antidysenterica Wall; bulb extracts of Al-
tionally employed to restrict the move-
lium sativum L. and many other plant ex-
ment of infected plant materials and con-
tracts have potentiality to prevent nema-
taminated soil into a state or country.
tode infestation in agricultural fields.
Many serious plant parasitic nematodes
Different plant products like oil
spread from one country to another and
seed cakes, oils, seeds, and various other
from one state to other. The potato cyst
formulations are extensively used for the
nematode,
Globodera
rostochiensis
management of plant parasitic nematodes.
spread from Peru to almost whole of Eu-
rope and UK through seed potatoes and
6.4. Chemical methods
gunny bags. The stem and bulb nematode,
The chemicals those are used for
Ditylenchus dipsaci got introduced in
controlling nematodes are the nemati-
southern parts of Sweden also through
cides. These are the soil fumigants, ap-
seeds. For this reason, plant quarantine
plied to the soil and diffuse through the
has been introduced at state, national and
soil as gas and acted against nematodes.
international levels as a legal restriction to
The use of nematicides for the manage-
check the spreading of nematode pest.
ment of plant parasitic nematodes in agri-
Regulatory control of pests and diseases
culture becomes essential when other
is the legal enforcement of measures to
methods are unable to protect the crops
prevent them from spreading. Strict regu-
from these pests, or spreading of nema-
lations have been made against G. rosto-
todes is so high in the field. Before plant-
chiensis and Rhadinaphelenchus cocophi-
ing, the nematicidal application in the
lus, the red ring nematode of coconut.
field in proper doses resulted in nema-
Domestic quarantine regulations have al-
tode-free rhizosphere, healthy root sys-
so been imposed to restrict the movement
tem, efficient use of minerals, moisture
of potato to prevent the spread of potato
and also reduces the chances of invasion
cyst nematode from Tamil Nadu to other
of other harmful soil microorganism.
states in India.
Kuhn (1881) first used chemical (CS2)
against Heterodera schachtii in Germany.
7. Conclusion
The discovery of DD-mixture in 1943,
EDB in 1945 and DBCP in 1954 played
The plant parasitic nematodes are
remarkable role in demonstrating the
undoubtedly the most widespread and in-
nematode damage and crop loses. The use
sidious pests of crops. The management
of methylisothiocyanate, precursor com-
practices against these hidden enemies of
pounds like daromet, methamsodium, me-
agriculture to be adopted depend upon the
thylisothiocyanate mixture like vorlex etc.
degree of infection, relative value of the
also help in controlling nematodes. The
crop, filed size, level of capital invest-
non-volatile
nematicides
like
fen-
ment, practicability and feasibility of the
sulphothion, aldicarb, carbofuran, etho-
control strategy. The cultural practices are
prop etc. are also very promisible nemati-
simple and effective methods of nema-
cides. But the use of nematicides is a
tode pest control, adopted by the farmers.
costly proposition and creates toxic haz-
Physical methods are also simple and
ards and environmental pollution. Few of
popular for management of nematode in-
them like DBCP, MBr, aldicarb etc. have
festation. The biological and botanical
been banned already. The use of nemati-
methods are eco-friendly rather than oth-
cides is not so popular in agriculture ex-
ers. Though chemical methods may create
cept in few cases where drastic spreading
health hazards and causes environmental
of nematodes occurs in the field.
pollution but for urgent need and to check
severe attack by serious nematode pests,
6.5. Regulatory methods
and when other control measures are not
ISBN: 978-967-14475-3-6; eISBN: 978-967-14475-2-9 65
Management Strategies against Tiny Tigers… Gantait so fruitful, the chemical methods may be
Jairajpuri, M. S. and Ahmad, W.
adopted against these noxious pests of
(1992). Dorylaimida: Free-living,
various crops. For sustainable develop-
Predaceous and Plant parasitic
ment of agriculture, a combination of dif-
Nematodes . Oxford and IBH Pub-
ferent management systems integrated in
lishing Company Private Limited,
the correct manner can help to manage
New Delhi. pp. 458.
the nematode problems.
Jairajpuri, M. S., Alam, M. M. and
Ahmad,
I.
(1990) .
Nematode
Acknowledgement
biocontrol: Aspects and Prospects.
CBS Publishers and Distributors,
I am thankful to Dr. Kailash
Delhi, India. pp. 155.
Chandra, Director, Zoological Survey of
Kuhn, I. (1881). Die Ergebnisse der
India, Kolkata for providing facilities and
versuche zur Ermittelung der ursach
encouragement to prepare this article.
der Ruben mudigkeit und zur
Erforschung
der
Natur
der
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